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Courtesy
of Alissa Nelson, Luke Sturgeon, Elizabeth Holbrook, Myra
Meyerovich.
Global consumption of water has tripled since 1950. The Middle East has been especially anxious to use new technology to increase its ability to use the little water it has. Private investments paid for the nearly one hundred and fifty water related projects that were recently completed in the Middle East. The total cost amounted to $45 billion and there are plans for another $45 billion of water related projects. While these ambitious programs will help the people immediately near them, countries further downstream suffer from a significant reduction in the water they get. Thus, many humanitarian ventures to help the people of one nation often hurt the populations of another. Downstream countries are aware of this problem and zealously guard their water supplies. Several countries are on the brink of war due to water disputes. The World Bank predicts that the next major war will be fought over water. Since the Middle East experience some of the world's greatest water stress combined with strong regional tensions, it is reasonable to conclude that it would be a hotspot for a water related crisis. The following sections examine some regional conflicts over water in the Middle East.
The Euphrates is the largest river in western Asia. The ancient civilizations of Babylonia and Mesopotamia grew from along its banks. The Euphrates rises in Turkey, passes through eastern Syria, and runs the full length of Iraq. Areas in its middle and lower reaches receive as little as 10 inches of rain per year. During most of the year, the river is slow and muddy (in some places it is only 1.5 feet deep!), but in the spring, melted snow runoff increases its flow significantly. Together with its tributary, the Tigris River, the Euphrates is a critical source of water for these three arid countries. The Euphrates and Tigris provide valuable electric power and irrigation for Turkey, Syria, and Iraq. The land between the two rivers is good for agriculture. Iraq is often referred to as "the land between the rivers" and the "Fertile Crescent." The area is used mainly for grazing and cereal production. Shatt al Arab, a tributary in southeastern Iraq, has the densest date growing land in the world. Inthe past fifty years, modernization has allowed the three countries to make better use of the rivers. The Tabqua Dam in Syria (1973) provides electricity and irrigation, the Habbaniyah project in Iraq (1956) stores floodwater for summer use, and the Keban Dam in Turkey (1973) generates hydroelectric power. Yet the same development that has improved conditions in Turkey, Syria, and Iraq, is also a cause of strife. Consumption by upstream countries decreases the water supply available to those downstream. Turkey has been especially ambitious in its projects. Kemal Atatürk, the founder of the Republic of Turkey, was the one to decide to use Turkey's water resources more effectively. He established the Electric Works Studies Agency in 1936 to produce hydroelectric power. After extensive studies and damming projects under the "Keban Scheme" in 1938, he created the State Hydraulic Works (DSI) in 1954, and the Euphrates Planning Administration in 1961. These studies laid out basic principles for utilizing the Lower Euphrates and Tigris Basins. In 1977, Turkey combined all preexisting projects into the Southeast Anatolia Project. Then in 1986 the State Planning Organization was authorized to integrate the Southeast Anatolia Region with other regions to ensure better coordination amongst them. This latest damming project became known as the Greater Anatolia Project. GAP is one of the largest water infrastructure projects in history. It will generate 7,460 megawatts of electricity. This is almost four times the capacity of the Hoover Dam. It will also add 1.7 million hectares of irrigated land to Turkey's farmland. The income level of people in the region could increase five fold. Unfortunately, while Turkey will undoubtedly prosper from the Greater Anatolia Project, its downstream neighbors will suffer a severe reduction in their water supply. It is estimated that Syria will receive 40% less water from the Euphrates, resulting in a 12% reduction of electrical output in its Tabqua Dam. Only 20% of the Euphrates would reach Iraq, which is even further downstream. Iraq would lose irrigation water to nearly 1 million hectares, which make up one fifth of its total arable land. Both Syria and Iraq have already threatened to go to war if Turkey persists with its Greater Anatolia Project. Yet, while lambasting Turkey for its use of water, Syria too has its own plans for the river. Syria wants to divert the course of the Euphrates River immediately after it enters Syria (from Turkey). The new Dam of August would be the second largest dam in Syria. It is expected to fill a lake with 1.9 billion cubic meters of water and generate 630 megawatts of electric energy. All this, of course, means even less water for Iraq. The three countries have tentatively agreed to allow international regulation of the Tigris and Euphrates, but as of yet, there is no actual framework of rules.
The Nile is the longest river in the world. It is actually composed of two rivers, commonly referred to as the Blue Nile and the White Nile. The Blue Nile, which provides 85% of the water for the Nile, originates in Lake Tanganyika in Ethiopia and runs through ten countries in its 4,150-mile path to the Mediterranean Sea. The area surrounding the Nile varies from dense tropical forests and tall elephant grass, to thorn forests and savannas, to deserts and swamps. Eighty-five billion cubic meters of water flow through the Nile annually, and Egypt, the last country through which it passes, uses most of it. Egypt for a long time has pursued a policy of using all means available to it, including force, to prevent upstream countries from disturbing the Nile. Until modern times, Egypt was the only country with the technological capability to make use of the Nile, and had therefore traditionally had the lion's share of the Nile. This was not a problem until other upstream countries developed the means for diverting the water for their own use. Ethiopia, for example, recently emerged from a civil war and is now anxious for development. Its government has overseen the construction of over 200 dams that use 500 million cubic meters of water. Ethiopia's hydroelectric dams pose no threat to Egypt, for the water that turns the turbines simply passes through downstream. Ethiopia's wish for irrigation, however, would have a severe impact on the river's flow. Irrigation would dirty the water with salt and minerals and reduce its flow through evaporation. It is estimated that if Ethiopia were to irrigate only half of its arable land, it would reduce the Nile's flow to Egypt by 15%. Hydrologists doubt that the Nile contains enough water to satisfy both Ethiopia and Egypt--yet there are eight other countries vying for its use. Egypt is now also facing competition from Sudan. In 1959, Egypt and Sudan signed the Nile River Treaty that was meant to prevent hostilities between the two countries. The treaty divided the river into a three to one ratio, in favor of Egypt. Sudan's civil war forced it to abandon the Jonglei canal, a joint project with Egypt, that would have prevented billions of cubic meters of water from evaporating in the Sudanese swamps. Now Sudan plans to build a dam north of its capital Kartoum. This strategic location is the converging point of the Nile, where the White Nile and Blue Nile meet just before flowing into Egypt. Currently, other countries are using only a small portion of the Nile. Yet, as their total populations explode from their current 140 million to 340 million by the year 2025, and as modernization allows more development, they will use an increasingly larger share of the Nile. The Egyptian government has stated that it considers upstream development of the Nile to be a national security threat and that it is willing to go to war to protect its access to fresh water. Fortunately, the 10 Nile watershed countries are seeking a peaceful resolution to the water problem. Over the past few years, representatives of these nations have met to discuss future use of their shared natural resource.
The Jordan River is only a small salty stream by the time it reaches Jericho, the crossing point between Jordan, Israel, and the West Bank. It is fed by rivers and tributaries that rise in Lebanon, Syria, Israel, and Jordan. Its flow is only 1% of the Nile's, yet it is the lifeline of Jordan, Israel, and the West Bank. Superior military power has allowed Israel to maintain control of the Jordan River. In the early 1960's, Israel stopped a Syrian-Jordanian plan to divert the water and later, in the 1970's, its threats prevented Jordan from building irrigation canals. During ensuing wars, Israel took control of key sections of the Jordan River. Though Israel currently uses most of the water from the Jordan River, Jordan's allocation is scheduled to increase under the terms of a 1994 treaty. Israel also takes 80-90% of the water from the western aquifer in the West Bank; this amounts to a quarter of Israel's water supply. Palestinians are not allowed to build or deepen wells to tap into the western aquifer. This is partially to protect the water supply. The aquifer is made of permeable dolomite and limestone; if agriculture was permitted directly above it, the aquifer could easily become polluted by pesticides and insecticides. Yet, both sides understand the injustice of the situation. Future Israeli-Palestinian "final status" talks will include plans for increasing the Palestinians portion of the water. While critics point out that Israel uses a disproportionate amount of water, it must be said that Israel has the world's most efficient system of water- use. For example, crops are watered by drip irrigation to minimize loss of water by evaporation. Using the same resources that had been available for centuries, Israelis were able to literally make the desert bloom. Israel has a legitimate concern that if it were to give up its power over the water supply, its neighbors would destroy this precious resource either through mismanagement or hostile intent.
Turkey's relations with the nations downstream have never been exceptionally good. Over the years they have come remarkably close to war several times. This has most recently occurred with Syria, in October, 1998. Turkey accused Syria of harboring Kurdish Workers' Party (PKK) rebels within their borders. The PKK attacks southeastern Turkish villages, burning schools, sabotaging economic development projects and killing civilians in order to achieve independence for the Kurdish people in the region. Turkey has also invaded Iraq due to attacks by Turkish Kurdish rebels from across the border. Such invasions have occurred four times in the course of this decade. Turkey's relations with Iraq are also strained due to UN actions regarding the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait. Turkey, as part of NATO, presents a threat to the leadership of Iraq. As part of NATO, Turkey not only participated in Desert Storm, but also patrols the No-Fly Zone over northern Iraq. This further heightens the resentment of Turkey derived from the Ottoman Empire's historic possession of Iraq. The areas of dispute in these regions are the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, both of which flow through Turkey, Syria and Iraq. Both Syria and Iraq claim "ancestral rights" to the rivers. However, the majority of the water in both rivers is contributed by Turkey, which is the main argument behind their utilization of the waterways for energy and irrigation. While Turkey's lands are quite fertile as a result, the lands of Syria and Iraq in the Euphrates River basin have a water scarcity problem. Turkey has erected a series of dams along the Euphrates River which Syria and Iraq both object to. The two countries feared that such water installations would "inflict damage on their countries." They also accuse Turkey of not alerting them of the dams' construction in advance. In January, 1990 Turkey chose to impound the Atatürk Dam for one month, partially interrupting the water flow downstream. This was seen as an attempt to cause damage to neighboring countries, but which Turkey claims is "a technical necessity for the construction of any dam." Syria was alerted to this fact in accordance with a Protocol signed in 1987, but no mention is made of Iraq, who is also located downstream.
The dispute over the Nile River is quite multifaceted. Egypt and Sudan differ on nearly every issue, and their debate over rights to the Nile is the same. Egypt is much more economically and socially developed than Sudan, mostly due to unequal distribution of resources during the European colonial period. Egyptian forces conquered Sudan in 1821, there was a successful revolt by the Sudanese in 1881, then the country was again conquered, this time by combined Egyptian and British forces. As a result, there is a great deal of resentment towards the west in Sudan. Currently Sudan has an Islamic Fundamentalist government, world renowned for its state-sponsored terrorism. Egypt on the other hand is a western-style democracy. Sudan is well-known for its anti-US standpoint, whereas Egypt is the recipient of the second-largest US foreign aid package in the world, $2 billion per year, behind Israel. Possibly as a result of such westernization, Sudan was implicated in an attempt on the life of Egypt's President Mubarak in June, 1995. In 1959, Egypt and Sudan signed a treaty that essentially turned over control of the Nile to Egypt. Therefore, Sudan could not dam the river for their own use. However, Egypt built the massive Aswan High Dam in the south of the country which provides water for irrigation in the valley.
The United Nations is first and foremost a bureaucracy. Therefore when it does take action, such operations are delegated to smaller organizations encompassed within the main body of the General Assembly, as the General Assembly itself cannot take direct action. Fortunately, this results in a more comprehensive view of the situation, as smaller organizations can concentrate on certain areas more effectively. Therefore, while the General Assembly has no powers of enforcement, it can delegate some of its tasks to other bodies which can carry out action on many fronts. For this reason, General Assembly resolutions may seem inconsequential, whereas studies by other groups are more complete. What the General Assembly does do however is to concentrate some attention on a certain issue and bring it to the forefront of debates for a period. So while it may sound silly, 1981-1990 was the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade, as proclaimed in 1980 by General Assembly Resolution 35/18. This opened the door to future talks on freshwater conservation. In 1992, March 22 of every year was set aside as a World Day for Water, as stated in Resolution 47/193. This action served to increase awareness of the water problem, and to help educate the world community. This also facilitates opening a dialogue on water, for at least one day a year, to review recent events and advances in the world of conservation. The actions with the furthest reaching effects are the massive, world-wide conferences which the UN periodically holds. As far back as 1972 at the United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm, concern was raised on global water problems. Water has been the focus of such conferences as the UN Water Conference in Mar del Plata, Argentina, in 1977; the Global Consultation on Safe Water and Sanitation for the 1990s in New Delhi, India, in 1990; and the International Conference on Water and the Environment: Development Issues for the 21st Century, in Dublin, Ireland, and the UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, both of these in 1992. The Mar del Plata conference laid the groundwork for the Rio conference, which resulted in the prolific Agenda 21. Chapter 18 of Agenda 21 set up plans for, as the title states, "the protection of the quality and supply of freshwater resources." The detailed plan gives approximate costs and timetables for implementation of the plan, which calls for, among other things, the reduction of greenhouse gases, safe management of aquifers (a layer of porous materials such as sand and gravel that yields a useful amount of ground water [Personal Note: I would like to add a sidebar-type thing to define aquifers better within the background paper, if this would be a viable solution to some definition problems like acronyms as well]) and introduction of conservation efforts. It is important to note that in 1994, the Commission on Sustainable Development observed that "in many countries a rapid deterioration of water quality, serious water shortages and reduced availability of fresh water were severely affecting human health, ecosystems and economic development." Thus, many of the agencies dealing with the water issue fall under the UN Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). UNESCO generally organizes meetings, conferences and workshops, and also incorporates such groups as the International Hydrological Programme, which does a great deal of environmental monitoring worldwide. The UN Environmental Programme (UNEP) also observes the freshwater situations around the world, providing assistance to governments for the development of sustainable freshwater management systems. The Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO) is involved in the execution of field projects on integrated watershed (the region drained by a river system) management throughout the world, with a focus on achieving environmental stability. Additionally, the World Bank has provided financial and technical assistance to a number of projects throughout the developing world. However, to develop a truly comprehensive assessment of resources, multiple UN bodies must work together. Nearly every organization under the UN umbrella plays some role in this issue. The most recent assessment, submitted to the General Assembly in 1997, was prepared by such groups as the FAO, UNEP, UNESCO, UNDP, and the World Meteorological Organization (WMO), among others. The magnitude of this issue is certainly reflected in the far-reaching participation on the part of the UN.
The issue of water shortage is a difficult one for which to define blocs; no nations are in support of water shortages. However, different nations have very different ideas about how to deal with the problem. One way of examining the situation is from the developed versus developing worlds' viewpoints. Despite the costs, developed nations have the money to seek long-term solutions. Because they have the technological know-how, they are likely to support solutions which rely on better technology. One example is drip irrigation, a technique where water is delivered directly to plants' roots by way of a hose with many small perforations; by contrast, conventional irrigation often wastes as much as sixty percent of the water intended for crops. Unfortunately, updating to drip irrigation systems often carries a prohibitively weighty price tag. This is especially true for nations where much of the population relies on subsistence farming. In this way, the goals of the developing nations are much more short term; for example, having enough water to develop industry, or support crops, right now; that is, unless the developed world will shoulder the burden of cost. However, the developing nations also stand to lose the most from water shortages; much of their economy is agriculture oriented, and they lack the resources to cope with a major famine. Additionally, the developing world is locked into something of a vicious cycle when it comes to water conservation. It is in the developing nations of the world that the fastest population growth is occurring, which leads to water and food shortages which cause the justification of land clearing and poor irrigation technique, for food production, both of which further stress already strained water supplies and can lead to famine. Additionally, the governments of these nations, in an attempt to shift from subsistence lever farming, encourage the use of high-yield crop varieties and plants such as lettuces and flowers which require much larger amounts of water than the subsistence crops traditionally used. Clearly another defining characteristic of a nation's position is its location in the course of a river or aquifer. Many upstream nations support agreements which afford them greater water rights, and downstream nations, naturally, oppose them. This situation is exemplified in the case of the Euphrates, which begins in the Anatolia region of Turkey, then flows through Syria and Iraq. Turkey has historically laid claims to as much of the river's water as it wanted, pointing out that it is ninety-percent Turkish fed. Turkey is currently undertaking a vast irrigation program that is expected to reduce the amount of water to Syria by forty percent, and that to Iraq by sixty percent. Syria and Iraq, however, are less than friendly, and on their own each falls far short of Turkey's military strength, by which it has traditionally protected its interests. Another significant consideration is a nation's current water stress. More stressed nations support immediate, short-term solutions; less stressed nations support longer-term solutions. In general, the nations of the Middle East and North Africa are under considerable water stress. Much of China is overdrawing its resources far faster than they can be replenished. Large areas of western and southern India and Pakistan are water-short, and much of South America and Mexico face considerable water scarcity. Some of the specifics of the situations facing key nations are included here. The case of the Euphrates has already been outlined. Israel relies on large amounts of water to "make the desert bloom." Although they are a forerunner in irrigation and conservation technology, they are still overdrawing resources by about ten percent each year. In addition much of Israel's water is diverted from the Jordan river and its related aquifers which are also the sole water sources of nearly all of Israel's neighbors, and the supplies of which are largely located in Israeli controlled Palestinian territory. Historically, one of the ways in which Israel has maintained its control over the Palestinians is by controlling their water sources. In the past Israel has used military action to ensure its needs were met, but, with peace as a possibility, it is in its best interests to consider fairer allocation with its Arab neighbors. The Nile is another of the world's most hotly contested of river basins. All of Egypt's water comes from the Nile, and Egypt too has relied on the strength of its military to ensure its water needs are met. Egypt does, however, recycle the water it uses for irrigation, by far its largest use, three or four times, and has made good use of conservation technology like drip irrigation. On the other side, the Nile is shared by ten sovereign nations before it reaches Egypt, which itself feeds the river almost not at all. The river's major sources are in the Ethiopian highlands and the mountains of central Africa. Ethiopia, as the river's primary source, feels entitled to more of the water, which could help dearly in dealing with the droughts and devastating famines besieging the poor nation. However, Egypt has enough regional and international clout to prevent the nation from receiving the financial assistance it would require to develop the irrigation systems it can't afford itself. A vast amount of the Nile's flow is curtailed by the swamps of southern Sudan, and, unfortunately, a joint Egyptian/Sudani project, called the Jonglei Canal, which would have prevented vast amounts of water from evaporating in said swamps, had to be abandoned because of Sudan's civil war. Other Middle Eastern nations, particularly those possessing oil wealth, like Saudi Arabia, rely almost entirely on desalination for their water. Unfortunately, this technique is too costly and energy consuming for most nations, and is not without its own environmental impacts. Although far from the area of our primary focus, Mexico is one of the nations most beleaguered by water shortages. To address its problem the nation has become one of the world's most exemplary water recyclers and conservers. The government has implemented extensive irrigation modernization initiatives which have included updating to drip irrigation and the technique of configuring fields such that runoff flows over other crop land and can be collected and reused. Finally, keep in mind that the specifics of each nation's water policies are complicated, and it is your job to research them further on your own.
One thing that we must all try to bear in mind is that the goal of this committee is to arrive at viable solutions to the problems of water shortage. For this reason there are specific areas of concern that a resolution ought to address, and others that it needn't. Amongst the foremost of concerns is what measures will be adopted to ensure water availability. Should the focus be on conservation, education, water pricing, developing new sources, reallocating current supplies between the three major uses (industry, agriculture, and homes,) improving technology (irrigation, desalination) or something different altogether? One of the major points to bear in mind when addressing this issue is the economic feasibility of each option. Do the more developed nations, which possess the funds and technology to create long-term solutions, have a responsibility to the rest of the world to share those funds and that know-how? Another of the hottest issues currently concerning water usage is the prospect of adopting regional and international water pricing policies. Some argue that by making water an expensive raw material, nations and individuals could be discouraged from any wasteful practices, and the economic sensibility of updating technology would increase the popularity of that solution. On the other hand, there are those who argue that doing so would only heighten water unavailability, due to cost, for the poor. Nonetheless, this solution, adopting expansive standardized pricing policies, is the one most ardently supported by the World Bank, the largest contributor to water improvement projects. Another of the major areas of dispute is what rights and responsibilities are held by upriver countries, versus down-river ones. Some nations, Turkey and Sudan for example, feel that they have rights to the majority of a river's water because they are upstream. However, some downstream nations, like Egypt, Syria and Iraq, believe that they are entitled to the majority of the water. In these cases, does military "might make right," as the saying goes? Should the domestic and industrial needs of down-river nations be met before waters are diverted for upriver irrigation? What is an effective compromise? It can be difficult to make a general rule, so the situation of each river may have to be dealt with individually. Finally, bear in mind that while a long-term solution is the ultimate goal, many parts of the Middle East, and the world, are in dire need of water as we speak.
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